A/b testing for mobile applications

ABSTRACT

A machine may be configured to perform AB testing on mobile applications. For example, the machine receives an identifier of a user from a mobile device that requests a layout description of a user interface, determines the layout description that provides a configuration of one or more elements of the user interface according to an experiment variant associated with an experiment, and causes display of the one or more elements of the user interface on the mobile device based on the layout description.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of and claims priority to U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 17/210,944, filed Mar. 24, 2021, which is acontinuation of and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No.16/695,084, filed Nov. 25, 2019, which is a continuation of and claimspriority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/722,127, filed Oct. 2,2017, which is a continuation of and claims priority to U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 14/304,196, filed Jun. 13, 2014, each of which ishereby incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present application relates generally to the processing of data,and, in various example embodiments, to systems and methods forperforming A/B testing using mobile applications.

BACKGROUND

The proliferation of online stores has led to users expectinghigh-quality and user-friendly presentations of products and serviceavailable for sale online. In their attempt to maximize profits and meetcustomer expectations, many online merchants may test differentcharacteristics of the web pages of their online stores by performingA/B tests using the respective web pages.

A/B testing may be used to identify changes to web pages that increase aparticular desired outcome. An A/B test is an experiment that has twoversions, A and B, which are identical except for one variation that mayinfluence a user's choice of action. During an A/B test, differentstatistically significant groups of users may be presented withdifferent variations of an experiment to measure the users' responses tothe respective experiment variations. Experiment variations may includedifferences in elements of a user interface presented to differentusers, wording differences in the messages addressed to the differentrespective users (e.g., “offer ends soon” or “offer ends Sunday”), etc.

The responses of the users to the respective experiment variations maybe measured and used to generate test results (also referred to as“experiment results”) for each of the variations of the experiment.Examples of measurable outcomes of A/B tests are a click-through rate,the number of users registering to receive message from the onlinemerchant, the number of sales made, etc. The test results of theparticular experiment variations may be compared to determine whichexperiment variation is better at accomplishing a particular goal of theexperiment.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Some embodiments are illustrated by way of example and not limitation inthe figures of the accompanying drawings.

FIG. 1 is a network diagram depicting a client-server system, withinwhich some example embodiments may be deployed.

FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating marketplace and paymentapplications and that, in some example embodiments, are provided as partof application server(s) 118 in the networked system.

FIG. 3 is a network diagram illustrating a network environment suitablefor A/B testing using mobile applications, according to some exampleembodiments.

FIG. 4 is a diagram illustrating example user interface elements,according to some example embodiments.

FIG. 5 is a block diagram illustrating components of the experimentationmachine, according to some example embodiments.

FIGS. 6-8 are flowcharts illustrating a method of performing A/B testingusing a mobile application, according to some example embodiments.

FIG. 9 is a block diagram illustrating a mobile device, according tosome example embodiments.

FIG. 10 is a block diagram illustrating components of a machine,according to some example embodiments, able to read instructions from amachine-readable medium and perform any one or more of the methodologiesdiscussed herein.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Example methods and systems for facilitating the performance of A/Btests on mobile applications are described. Examples merely typifypossible variations. Unless explicitly stated otherwise, components andfunctions are optional and may be combined or subdivided, and operationsmay vary in sequence or be combined or subdivided. In the followingdescription, for purposes of explanation, numerous specific details areset forth to provide a thorough understanding of example embodiments. Itwill be evident to one skilled in the art, however, that the presentsubject matter may be practiced without these specific details.

An A/B test performed online, generally, may facilitate the selectionand presentation of two variations of an experiment to two sets ofusers, as well as the collection and analysis of the users' responses tothe two variations of the experiment. The two variations of theexperiment usually differ in one particular way. The difference betweenthe two variations may be, for example, in the display of theinformation or in the content of the information. The A/B test(hereinafter, also “A/B experiment”, “experimentation”, or “experiment”)may be performed based on the information presented to users via a website or a mobile application.

In some example embodiments, an experiment is designed to test (e.g.,measure) user responses to a particular variation in how an element of auser interface (also “UI”) is presented. A UI element may becharacterized by a number of parameters (hereinafter, also “attributes”)such as color, size, shape, content, pattern, background, etc., and by anumber of parameter values (hereinafter, also “attribute values”) thatcorrespond to each of the parameters. According to one example, theparameter “color” may take a value such as “yellow”, “blue”, “green”,etc. According to another example, the parameter “background” may take avalue such as “clear”, “white”, “black”, etc.

A particular experiment may include a plurality of versions (orvariations). For example, a first variation of the experiment specifiesthat the UI element A (e.g., an image) to be displayed to a first groupof users is characterized by the parameter “shape” and the parametervalue “rectangle.” A second variation of the experiment specifies thatthe UI element A to be displayed to a second group of users ischaracterized by the parameter “shape” and the parameter value“circular.”

In another example, the difference between the variations of theexperiment is the parameter value that corresponds to the parameter“size” of the UI element “image” displayable in the UI. Each user in afirst group of mobile application users is to be shown a smaller-sizedimage displayed on the users' mobile devices via a particular mobileapplication. Each user in a second group of users is to be shown alarger-sized image displayed on the users' mobile devices via theparticular mobile application. The experiment may, for example, countthe number of users in each group who selected the image to obtainadditional information regarding the particular image or the itemsillustrated in the particular image.

In yet another example, a first variation of the experiment specifiesthat a first user group is shown a UI that includes the UI element“button” characterized by the parameter “color” and the parameter value“green.” The second variation of the experiment specifies that a seconduser group is shown a UI that includes the UI element “button”characterized by the parameter “color” and the parameter value “red.”

Generally, the A/B experiments performed on web sites are easilyperformed and cause little, if any, disruption or inconvenience to theusers. A user's browser application, as the client of a web server,simply displays the information provided by the web server. The contentof the information or the display of the information may be customizedfor presentation to different users according to a particular experimentvariation without requiring any additional work by the users.

In contrast, the A/B experiments performed on mobile applications (e.g.,native mobile applications) stored on mobile devices may present certainchallenges. Examples of such challenges are the need to include logicfor performing a particular test variation into the code of the mobileapplication stored on the mobile devices of numerous users, the long“tail” (e.g., period) of the mobile application version upgrade cycle,the expenditure of resources to maintain different versions of themobile application, etc.

Unfortunately, because some users of the mobile application delayupgrading the mobile application to a newer version for a long period oftime (also called a “tail”), certain A/B tests may not be performeduntil a critical number of users have upgraded their mobile application.The long “tail” of the mobile application version upgrade cycle maycause an increased expenditure of resources for maintaining differentversions of the mobile application and a delay in performing A/B testsusing the mobile application.

In some example embodiments, the conventional performing of an A/B teston native mobile applications may include receiving, as a result of amobile application being invoked, an identifier (e.g., a user login or amobile device identifier) at an A/B testing service on a server from themobile device. The server-side code (e.g., the A/B testing service) maydetermine which treatment (e.g., variance, variation, etc.) of anexperiment may be run by the mobile application, based on one or morealgorithms for determining (e.g., selecting) a particular treatmentbased on the identifier. This process is called qualification. Theselected treatment when run by the mobile application may allow the userof the mobile application to have a particular experience (e.g., view aparticular layout of the UI) particularly selected for the user by theserver-side code.

Upon the completion of the qualification by the server-side code, a datastructure may then be transmitted from the A/B testing service to themobile application. The data structure may reference (e.g., identify,include, etc.) a particular experimentation and the particulartreatment. In response to receiving the data structure, the mobileapplication may deliver a particular experience to the user according tothe particular experimentation and the particular treatment. Forexample, an experiment may include three treatments: a large icon, amidsized icon, and a small icon. Upon receiving the data structure thatreferences one of the three treatments from the A/B testing service, themobile application may display a particular icon size to the user basedon the particular treatment referenced in the data structure.

In the context of a conventionally performed experimentation, each newexperimentation (e.g., A/B testing) may require that the mobileapplication include logic (e.g., code) for all possible treatmentspertinent to the new experimentation in order for the mobile applicationto present any of the possible experiences to the user based on therespective selected treatment of the experimentation. A native mobileapplication may include a number of pre-wired (e.g., pre-coded)experiences associated with particular treatments of a particularexperiment.

For example, to display images of different sizes, the mobileapplication must include logic for receiving the experiment data (e.g.,parameters or parameter values) and for determining, based on theexperiment data, which size image the mobile application may display. Ifa particular variation in what may be displayed to the user is notanticipated by the engineers who designed the mobile application, andthe logic for the particular variation is not coded in the mobileapplication, then the particular variation may not be tested on themobile application. The code of the mobile application may requirechanging in order to support the testing of the particular variation. Insome instances, changing the code for a new variation of an experimentmay require releasing an updated version of the mobile application.

A large company may perform hundreds of A/B tests each year. This mayrequire new versions of the mobile applications to be installed by thecompany's user base frequently. But unlike web applications, which aredeployed on demand, native mobile applications are compiled code thatmay be distributed and installed on mobile devices individually. Becausethere may a percentage of mobile users who choose not to update (ordefer update) the mobile application to the latest version for a varietyof reasons, some users may not experience the newer A/B tests if they donot update the mobile application.

In some example embodiments, an experimentation system communicativelycoupled to mobile devices facilitates the performance of A/B testing onthe mobile devices such that the experimentation system, rather than thecopies of the mobile application stored on the mobile device, determineswhich test variation is to be run on a particular copy of the mobileapplication. In some example embodiments, the domain of A/B tests may bedescribed in a specific instruction set interpretable dynamically bymobile applications stored on mobile devices such that the mobileapplications may not require re-compilation when new A/B tests areperformed. Different experiences of using the mobile application may beanticipated (e.g., abstracted), for example, by software developers orautomatically by the experimentation system, and the functionality forthe anticipated experiences may be coded into the mobile application.The abstracting of different experiences may include identifying theparameters of a UI element, or combination (e.g., permutation) ofparameters, and possible parameter values corresponding to therespective parameters that characterize different functionalities of themobile application.

For example, the UI presented by the mobile application to the user maydisplay an image that has the following parameters (e.g., attributes orcharacteristics): a size, a shape, a content, and a state (e.g.,animated or static). Possible variations of the values taken by theseattributes may be anticipated, and may be coded in the mobileapplication. For instance, to facilitate the display of an image in arectangular UI element when displayed to a first user and in a circularUI element when displayed to a second user, the particular difference(or variation) in how the image is displayed is anticipated, and thelogic for both possibilities is coded into the mobile application.

According to another example, an experimentation may include severalexperimentation treatments that differ based on one or more elements ina UI layout. The experimentation system may generate a particulardescription of the characteristics of the elements (e.g., components) ofa layout for each treatment of the experimentation. Examples of elementcharacteristics of UI elements are size, color, shape, or position. Aparticular copy of a mobile application may transmit a request for alayout instruction (e.g., an instruction that references a layoutdescription) from the experimentation system (e.g., an A/B test servicerunning on a server) each time the mobile application is about to rendera display. The request for a layout instruction may include anidentifier (e.g., a user ID, such as a user login, or a mobile deviceID, or a mobile application copy ID) to identify the origin of therequest. The experimentation system, in response to the request for alayout instruction received from the particular copy of the mobileapplication, may identify a particular treatment for the particular copyof the mobile application based on the identifier received with therequest and based on one or more algorithms for selecting a treatment.The experimentation system may then identify the particular layoutdescription that corresponds to the particular treatment and maytransmit a layout instruction that references the particular layoutdescription to the particular copy of the mobile application via themobile device that stores the particular copy of the particular mobileapplication. In some instances, the mobile application includes ageneric mechanism to execute the layout instruction and renderdynamically, at run-time, a display described by the layout instruction.

In some example embodiments, in response to the request for a layoutinstruction received from the particular copy of the mobile application,the experimentation system may select a particular treatment and maydynamically generate a layout description according to the selectedtreatment and generate a response to the request for the layoutinstruction. The response (e.g., an instruction) may reference (e.g.,include) the layout description. The layout description may beinterpreted generically by the mobile application without the need toroll out a new version of the mobile application. This approach mayallow the experimentation system to conduct a high volume ofexperimentations without affecting the mobile applications stored ondifferent mobile devices (e.g., without requiring the mobileapplications to “understand” or identify the experimentation protocoland experimentation exchange with the experimentation system, or to“know” or determine that the mobile applications may be performingparticular variants of an experimentation).

In some example embodiments, the parameterizing of a given set ofexperiences or the describing of the given set of experiences based onone or more instructions (e.g., providing a description of an experienceor treatment in an instruction) may obviate the need for a mobileapplication to determine details (e.g., conditions, content, context,etc.) of an experimentation. The mobile application may deliver variousexperiences based on the treatment dynamically selected by theexperimentation system at the backend for one or more particular copiesof the mobile application. The experimentation system may change thetreatments selected for different copies of the mobile application atany time without requiring re-coding, re-distribution, orre-installation of the mobile application copies. This may allow anorganization utilizing the experimentation system to have increasedflexibility in modifying existing experimentations or devising newexperimentations, as well as to reduce the costs of running a largenumber of experimentations.

Based on the abstraction of different experiences of using the mobileapplication, the experimentation system may control the logic (e.g., thesoftware, the code, etc.) used to deliver the different experiences. Insome example embodiments, the logic can be stored on a server of theexperimentation system instead of in the mobile application on themobile device associated with a user. The server may control (e.g., viaa command or instruction) what experience (e.g., configuration of theUI) a particular copy of the mobile application displays to a user. Byallowing the experimentation system to control one or more aspects ofthe configuration of the UI displayed by the mobile application on themobile device, the performance of A/B tests using mobile applications isnot hindered by the long “tail” of the mobile application versionupgrade cycle.

In some example embodiments, the experimentation system receives anidentifier of a first mobile device that stores a first copy of a mobileapplication. The experimentation system identifies, based on theidentifier of the first mobile device, a parameter of an element of auser interface displayed by the first copy of the mobile application onthe first mobile device. The experimentation system selects, forexample, based on the identifier of the first mobile device, a firstparameter value that corresponds to the parameter. In certain exampleembodiments, instead of identifying the parameter and/or parameter valuebased on the identifier of the first mobile device, the experimentationsystem identifies the parameter and/or parameter value based on a useridentifier (ID) such as a user name or login ID, a version of the mobileapplication, a context of the mobile application (e.g., the “view image”context), etc.

The experimentation system then generates, using at least one processor,a first instruction referencing the first parameter value. In someinstances, the first instruction also references the parameter. Thefirst instruction may be executable by the first copy of the mobileapplication to display the element of the user interface on the firstmobile device according to the first parameter value. In response toreceiving the identifier of the first mobile device, the experimentationsystem transmits the first instruction to the first mobile device.

In addition, the experimentation system receives an identifier of asecond mobile device that stores a second copy of the mobileapplication. The experimentation system identifies, based on theidentifier of the second mobile device, a second parameter value thatcorresponds to the parameter. The experimentation system generates asecond instruction referencing the second parameter value. In someinstances, the second instruction also references the parameter. Thesecond instruction may be executable by the second copy of the mobileapplication to display the element of the user interface on the firstmobile device according to the second parameter value. In response toreceiving the identifier of the second mobile device, theexperimentation system transmits the second instruction to the secondmobile device.

The first copy of the mobile application and the second copy of themobile application execute the first instruction and the secondinstruction, respectively, at run time. The execution of the first andsecond instructions causes the display of the element of the userinterface on the first mobile device according to the first parametervalue and the display of the element of the user interface on the secondmobile device according to the second parameter value. Data thatpertains to the interactions by the users of the first copy of themobile application or of the second copy of the mobile application withthe particular UIs displayed on the users' mobile devices may becaptured and analyzed by the experimentation system or, in someinstances, by the respective copies of the mobile application. Theexperimentation system may generate, based on the captured data, metricsthat measure and/or compare user responses to the experiment variations.

FIG. 1 is a network diagram depicting a client-server system 100, withinwhich some example embodiments may be deployed. A networked system 102,in the example forms of a network-based marketplace or publicationsystem, provides server-side functionality, via a network 104 (e.g., theInternet or a Wide Area Network (WAN)), to one or more clients. FIG. 1illustrates, for example, a web client 106 (e.g., a browser, such as theInternet Explorer browser developed by Microsoft Corporation of Redmond,Wash. State) and a programmatic client 108 executing on respectivedevices 110 and 112.

An Application Program Interface (API) server 114 and a web server 116are coupled to, and provide programmatic and web interfaces respectivelyto, one or more application servers 118. The application servers 118host one or more marketplace applications 120 and payment applications122. The application servers 118 are, in turn, shown to be coupled toone or more database servers 124 that facilitate access to one or moredatabases 126.

The marketplace applications 120 may provide a number of marketplacefunctions and services to users who access the networked system 102. Invarious example embodiments, the marketplace applications 120 mayinclude an experimentation engine 132. The experimentation engine 132,in some example embodiments, determines a particular experimentvariation for a user's mobile application and facilitates theperformance of the particular experiment variation using the user'smobile application.

The payment applications 122 may likewise provide a number of paymentservices and functions to users. The payment applications 122 may allowusers to accumulate value (e.g., in a commercial currency, such as theU.S. dollar, or a proprietary currency, such as “points”) in accounts,and then later to redeem the accumulated value for products (e.g., goodsor services) that are made available via the marketplace applications120. While the marketplace and payment applications 120 and 122 areshown in FIG. 1 to both form part of the networked system 102, it willbe appreciated that, in alternative embodiments, the paymentapplications 122 may form part of a payment service that is separate anddistinct from the networked system 102.

Further, while the system 100 shown in FIG. 1 employs a client-serverarchitecture, the embodiments are, of course, not limited to such anarchitecture, and could equally well find application in a distributed,or peer-to-peer, architecture system, for example. The variousmarketplace and payment applications 120 and 122 could also beimplemented as standalone software programs, which do not necessarilyhave networking capabilities.

The web client 106 accesses the various marketplace and paymentapplications 120 and 122 via the web interface supported by the webserver 116. Similarly, the programmatic client 108 accesses the variousservices and functions provided by the marketplace and paymentapplications 120 and 122 via the programmatic interface provided by theAPI server 114. The programmatic client 108 may, for example, be aseller application (e.g., the TurboLister application developed by eBayInc., of San Jose, Calif.) to enable sellers to author and managelistings on the networked system 102 in an off-line manner, and toperform batch-mode communications between the programmatic client 108and the networked system 102.

FIG. 1 also illustrates a third party application 128, executing on athird party server machine 130, as having programmatic access to thenetworked system 102 via the programmatic interface provided by the APIserver 114. For example, the third party application 128 may, utilizinginformation retrieved from the networked system 102, support one or morefeatures or functions on a website hosted by the third party. The thirdparty website may, for example, provide one or more promotional,marketplace, or payment functions that are supported by the relevantapplications of the networked system 102.

FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating marketplace and paymentapplications 120 and 122 that, in one example embodiment, are providedas part of application server(s) 118 in the networked system 102. Theapplications 120 and 122 may be hosted on dedicated or shared servermachines (not shown) that are communicatively coupled to enablecommunications between server machines. The applications 120 and 122themselves are communicatively coupled (e.g., via appropriateinterfaces) to each other and to various data sources, so as to allowinformation to be passed between the applications 120 and 122 or so asto allow the applications 120 and 122 to share and access common data.The applications 120 and 122 may furthermore access one or moredatabases 126 via the database servers 124.

The networked system 102 may provide a number of publishing, listing,and price-setting mechanisms whereby a seller may list (or publishinformation concerning) goods or services for sale, a buyer can expressinterest in or indicate a desire to purchase such goods or services, anda price can be set for a transaction pertaining to the goods orservices. To this end, the marketplace and payment applications 120 and122 are shown to include at least one publication application 200 andone or more auction applications 202, which support auction-formatlisting and price setting mechanisms (e.g., English, Dutch, Vickrey,Chinese, Double, Reverse auctions, etc.). The various auctionapplications 202 may also provide a number of features in support ofsuch auction-format listings, such as a reserve price feature whereby aseller may specify a reserve price in connection with a listing and aproxy-bidding feature whereby a bidder may invoke automated proxybidding.

A number of fixed-price applications 204 support fixed-price listingformats (e.g., the traditional classified advertisement-type listing ora catalogue listing) and buyout-type listings. Specifically, buyout-typelistings (e.g., including the Buy-It-Now (BIN) technology developed byeBay Inc., of San Jose, Calif.) may be offered in conjunction withauction-format listings, and allow a buyer to purchase goods orservices, which are also being offered for sale via an auction, for afixed-price that is typically higher than the starting price of theauction.

Store applications 206 allow a seller to group listings within a“virtual” store, which may be branded and otherwise personalized by andfor the seller. Such a virtual store may also offer promotions,incentives, and features that are specific and personalized to arelevant seller.

Reputation applications 208 allow users who transact, utilizing thenetworked system 102, to establish, build, and maintain reputations,which may be made available and published to potential trading partners.Consider that where, for example, the networked system 102 supportsperson-to-person trading, users may otherwise have no history or otherreference information whereby the trustworthiness and credibility ofpotential trading partners may be assessed. The reputation applications208 allow a user (for example, through feedback provided by othertransaction partners) to establish a reputation within the networkedsystem 102 over time. Other potential trading partners may thenreference such a reputation for the purposes of assessing credibilityand trustworthiness.

Personalization applications 210 allow users of the networked system 102to personalize various aspects of their interactions with the networkedsystem 102. For example a user may, utilizing an appropriatepersonalization application 210, create a personalized reference page atwhich information regarding transactions to which the user is (or hasbeen) a party may be viewed. Further, a personalization application 210may enable a user to personalize listings and other aspects of theirinteractions with the networked system 102 and other parties.

The networked system 102 may support a number of marketplaces that arecustomized, for example, for specific geographic regions. A version ofthe networked system 102 may be customized for the United Kingdom,whereas another version of the networked system 102 may be customizedfor the United States. Each of these versions may operate as anindependent marketplace or may be customized (or internationalized)presentations of a common underlying marketplace. The networked system102 may accordingly include a number of internationalizationapplications 212 that customize information (and/or the presentation ofinformation by the networked system 102) according to predeterminedcriteria (e.g., geographic, demographic or marketplace criteria). Forexample, the internationalization applications 212 may be used tosupport the customization of information for a number of regionalwebsites that are operated by the networked system 102 and that areaccessible via respective web servers 116.

Navigation of the networked system 102 may be facilitated by one or morenavigation applications 214. For example, a search application (as anexample of a navigation application 214) may enable key word searches oflistings published via the networked system 102. A browse applicationmay allow users to browse various category, catalogue, or inventory datastructures according to which listings may be classified within thenetworked system 102. Various other navigation applications 214 may beprovided to supplement the search and browsing applications.

In order to make listings available via the networked system 102 asvisually informing and attractive as possible, the applications 120 and122 may include one or more imaging applications 216, which users mayutilize to upload images for inclusion within listings. An imagingapplication 216 also operates to incorporate images within viewedlistings. The imaging applications 216 may also support one or morepromotional features, such as image galleries that are presented topotential buyers. For example, sellers may pay an additional fee to havean image included within a gallery of images for promoted items.

Listing creation applications 218 allow sellers to conveniently authorlistings pertaining to goods or services that they wish to transact viathe networked system 102, and listing management applications 220 allowsellers to manage such listings. Specifically, where a particular sellerhas authored and/or published a large number of listings, the managementof such listings may present a challenge. The listing managementapplications 220 provide a number of features (e.g., auto-relisting,inventory level monitors, etc.) to assist the seller in managing suchlistings. One or more post-listing management applications 222 alsoassist sellers with a number of activities that typically occurpost-listing. For example, upon completion of an auction facilitated byone or more auction applications 202, a seller may wish to leavefeedback regarding a particular buyer. To this end, a post-listingmanagement application 222 may provide an interface to one or morereputation applications 208, so as to allow the seller conveniently toprovide feedback regarding multiple buyers to the reputationapplications 208.

Dispute resolution applications 224 provide mechanisms whereby disputesarising between transacting parties may be resolved. For example, thedispute resolution applications 224 may provide guided procedureswhereby the parties are guided through a number of steps in an attemptto settle a dispute. In the event that the dispute cannot be settled viathe guided procedures, the dispute may be escalated to a third partymediator or arbitrator.

A number of fraud prevention applications 226 implement fraud detectionand prevention mechanisms to reduce the occurrence of fraud within thenetworked system 102.

Messaging applications 228 are responsible for the generation anddelivery of messages to users of the networked system 102 (such as, forexample, messages advising users regarding the status of listings at thenetworked system 102 (e.g., providing “outbid” notices to bidders duringan auction process or to provide promotional and merchandisinginformation to users)). Respective messaging applications 228 mayutilize any one of a number of message delivery networks and platformsto deliver messages to users. For example, messaging applications 228may deliver electronic mail (e-mail), instant message (IM), ShortMessage Service (SMS), text, facsimile, or voice (e.g., Voice over IP(VoIP)) messages via the wired (e.g., the Internet), plain old telephoneservice (POTS), or wireless (e.g., mobile, cellular, WiFi, WiMAX)networks 104.

Merchandising applications 230 support various merchandising functionsthat are made available to sellers to enable sellers to increase salesvia the networked system 102. The merchandising applications 230 alsooperate the various merchandising features that may be invoked bysellers, and may monitor and track the success of merchandisingstrategies employed by sellers.

The networked system 102 itself, or one or more parties that transactvia the networked system 102, may operate loyalty programs that aresupported by one or more loyalty/promotions applications 232. Forexample, a buyer may earn loyalty or promotion points for eachtransaction established and/or concluded with a particular seller, andbe offered a reward for which accumulated loyalty points can beredeemed.

FIG. 3 is a network diagram illustrating a network environment 300suitable for facilitating the performance of AB tests and multivariatetests using mobile applications, according to some example embodiments.The network environment 300 includes an experimentation machine 310(e.g., the experimentation engine 132), a database 126, and mobiledevices 330 and 350, all communicatively coupled to each other via anetwork 390. The experimentation machine 310, with or without thedatabase 126, may form all or part of a network-based system 305. Theexperimentation machine 310 and the mobile devices 330 and 350 may eachbe implemented in a computer system, in whole or in part, as describedbelow with respect to FIGS. 9 and 10 .

Also shown in FIG. 3 are users 332 and 352. One or both of the users 332and 352 may be a human user (e.g., a human being), a machine user (e.g.,a computer configured by a software program to interact with the mobiledevice 330), or any suitable combination thereof (e.g., a human assistedby a machine or a machine supervised by a human). The user 332 is notpart of the network environment 300, but is associated with the mobiledevice 330 and may be a user of the mobile device 330. For example, themobile device 330 may be a vehicle computer, a tablet computer, anavigational device, a portable media device, a smartphone, or awearable device (e.g., a smart watch or smart glasses) belonging to theuser 332. Likewise, the user 352 is not part of the network environment300, but is associated with the mobile device 350. As an example, themobile device 350 may be a vehicle computer, a tablet computer, anavigational device, a portable media device, a smartphone, or awearable device (e.g., a smart watch or smart glasses) belonging to theuser 352.

In some example embodiments, the mobile devices 330 and 350 store copiesof a mobile application. According to certain example embodiments, theexperimentation machine 310 may facilitate the performance of differentexperiment variations using the respective copies of the mobileapplications stored on the mobile device 330 and the mobile device 350.The facilitating of the performance of different experiment variationsmay be based on communications transmitted to the mobile devices 330 and350 via the network 390. For instance, the experimentation machine 310may cause a first copy of the mobile application stored on the mobiledevice 350 to display a first user interface configuration for use bythe user 352, and may cause a second copy of the mobile applicationstored on the mobile device 330 to display a second user interfaceconfiguration for use by the user 332. The first and second userinterface configurations may differ from each other in one or more ways.The interactions by the user 352 and the user 332 with the particularuser interface displayed by the respective copies of the mobileapplication stored on the mobile device 350 and the mobile device 330,respectively, may be tracked (e.g., by the mobile devices 350 and 330)and communicated to the experimentation machine 310 via the network 390for analysis.

Any of the machines, databases, or devices shown in FIG. 3 may beimplemented in a general-purpose computer modified (e.g., configured orprogrammed) by software (e.g., one or more software modules) to be aspecial-purpose computer to perform one or more of the functionsdescribed herein for that machine, database, or device. For example, acomputer system able to implement any one or more of the methodologiesdescribed herein is discussed below with respect to FIG. 10 . As usedherein, a “database” is a data storage resource and may store datastructured as a text file, a table, a spreadsheet, a relational database(e.g., an object-relational database), a triple store, a hierarchicaldata store, or any suitable combination thereof. Moreover, any two ormore of the machines, databases, or devices illustrated in FIG. 3 may becombined into a single machine, and the functions described herein forany single machine, database, or device may be subdivided among multiplemachines, databases, or devices.

The network 390 may be any network that enables communication between oramong machines, databases, and devices (e.g., the server machine 310 andthe mobile device 330). Accordingly, the network 390 may be a wirednetwork, a wireless network (e.g., a mobile or cellular network), or anysuitable combination thereof. The network 390 may include one or moreportions that constitute a private network, a public network (e.g., theInternet), or any suitable combination thereof. Accordingly, the network390 may include one or more portions that incorporate a local areanetwork (LAN), a wide area network (WAN), the Internet, a mobiletelephone network (e.g., a cellular network), a wired telephone network(e.g., a plain old telephone system (POTS) network), a wireless datanetwork (e.g., WiFi network or WiMax network), or any suitablecombination thereof. Any one or more portions of the network 390 maycommunicate information via a transmission medium. As used herein,“transmission medium” refers to any intangible (e.g., transitory) mediumthat is capable of communicating (e.g., transmitting) instructions forexecution by a machine (e.g., by one or more processors of such amachine), and includes digital or analog communication signals or otherintangible media to facilitate communication of such software.

FIG. 4 is a diagram illustrating example user interface elements,according to some example embodiments. A user interface (UI) displayedto a user of a mobile application by the mobile application may includea number of UI elements, such as titles, headlines, buttons, images,colors, form fields, backgrounds, windows, etc. Each of the UI elementsmay have one or more parameters (or attributes) that characterize therespective UI element. Each attribute of a UI element may have manypossible values. According to some example embodiments, an image may becharacterized by different attributes (e.g., size, shape, content,color, etc.) The image attributes may take different values. Examples ofattribute values that correspond to the “shape” attribute may be“rectangular”, “circular”, “triangle”, “pointillistic”, or “collage.”

According to certain example embodiments, the experimentation machine310 identifies a first variation of an experiment based on theidentifier of the user 332 and a second variation of the experimentbased on the identifier of the user 352. The first variation of theexperiment may specify that an image of a car is to be displayed by themobile application copy stored on the mobile device 330 as a rectangularshape 410, as shown in FIG. 4 . The second variation of the experimentmay specify that the image of the car is to be displayed by the mobileapplication copy stored on the mobile device 350 as a circular shape420, as shown in FIG. 4 .

The experimentation machine 310 may cause a particular copy of themobile application to generate a particular UI to be displayed to theuser of the particular copy of the mobile application. By issuing andtransmitting, to the mobile device that stores the particular mobileapplication copy, a command that references (or specifies) a particularattribute value or attribute-value pair that characterizes an element ofthe UI, the experimentation machine 310 controls the customization ofthe UI for the user of the particular mobile application copy. Theparticular mobile application copy stored on the mobile device, at runtime, may execute the command received from the experimentation machine310 and may display the image under the conditions specified by theexperimentation machine 310 in the instruction.

For example, upon identifying the first variation of the experiment, theexperimentation machine 310 generates and transmits a first instructionto the mobile device 330. In some example embodiments, the firstinstruction may reference (e.g., include) the “shape” attribute of the“image” UI element and the attribute value “rectangular.” The firstmobile application copy stored on the mobile device 330, at run time,executes the command received from the experimentation machine 310 anddisplays (or renders) the image as a rectangular shape (e.g., in arectangular frame) 410.

Similarly, upon identifying the second variation of the experiment, theexperimentation machine 310 generates and transmits a second instructionto the mobile device 350. In some example embodiments, the secondinstruction may reference (e.g., include) the “shape” attribute of the“image” UI element and the attribute value “circular.” The second mobileapplication copy stored on the mobile device 350, at run time, executesthe command received from the experimentation machine 310 and displays(or renders) the image as a circular shape (e.g., in a circular frame)420.

FIG. 5 is a block diagram illustrating components of the experimentationmachine 310, according to some example embodiments. The experimentationmachine 310 is shown as including a receiver module 510, a parametermodule 520, an instruction module 530, a communication module 540, ananalysis module 550, and a report module 560, all configured tocommunicate with each other (e.g., via a bus, shared memory, or aswitch).

Any one or more of the modules described herein may be implemented usinghardware (e.g., one or more processors of a machine) or a combination ofhardware and software. For example, any module described herein mayconfigure a processor (e.g., among one or more processors of a machine)to perform the operations described herein for that module. Moreover,any two or more of these modules may be combined into a single module,and the functions described herein for a single module may be subdividedamong multiple modules. Furthermore, according to various exampleembodiments, modules described herein as being implemented within asingle machine, database, or device may be distributed across multiplemachines, databases, or devices. The multiple machines, databases, ordevices are communicatively coupled to enable communications between themultiple machines, databases, or devices. The modules themselves arecommunicatively coupled (e.g., via appropriate interfaces) to each otherand to various data sources, so as to allow information to be passedbetween the applications so as to allow the applications to share andaccess common data. Furthermore, the modules may access one or moredatabases 126 via the database servers 124.

The receiver module 510 is configured to receive, in certain exampleembodiments, an identifier of a mobile device that stores a mobileapplication. In various example embodiments, the receiver module 510 isconfigured to receive an identifier of the user (e.g., a user ID) of themobile application, a version of the mobile application, an indicationof the context of the mobile application (e.g., the “view image”context), etc.

The parameter module 520 is configured to identify a parameter of anelement of a user interface displayed by the mobile application on themobile device. The identifying of the parameter of the element of theuser interface is based, in some instances, on the identifier of themobile device. In other instances, identifying of the parameter is basedon the identifier of the user of the mobile application, the version ofthe mobile application, or the context of the mobile application. Theparameter may be identified (e.g., selected) by the parameter module 520from a plurality of parameters. The parameter module 520 is alsoconfigured to select a parameter value that corresponds to theparameter. The parameter value may be selected by the parameter module520 from a plurality of parameter values that correspond to theparameter. In some instances, the selecting of the parameter value isbased on the identifier of the mobile device. In other instances, theselecting of the parameter value is based on the identifier of the userof the mobile application, the version of the mobile application, or thecontext of the mobile application.

According to some example embodiments, the parameter module 520 isfurther configured to identify an experiment for the mobile application.In some instances, the identifying of the experiment is based on theidentifier of the mobile device. In other instances, the identifying ofthe experiment is based on the identifier of the user of the mobileapplication, the version of the mobile application, or the context ofthe mobile application.

In some example embodiments, the experiment specifies (e.g., identifies)the parameter identified by the parameter module 520. The parametermodule 520 may identify the experiment before identifying the parameterof the element of the user interface. In certain example embodiments,the experiment specifies a parameter-value pair that characterizes theelement of the user interface. The parameter-value may include theparameter and a parameter value that corresponds to the parameter.

In various example embodiments, the parameter module 520 determines aversion of the mobile application stored on the mobile device. Thedetermining of the version of the mobile application may be based on theidentifier of the mobile device. The identifying of the parameter may bebased on the version of the mobile application.

The instruction module 530 is configured to generate an instructionreferencing the parameter value. The instruction is executable by themobile application to display the element of the user interface on themobile device according to the parameter value. In some exampleembodiments, the execution of the instruction by the mobile applicationcauses a display of the element of the user interface by the mobileapplication on the mobile device according to the parameter value.

The communication module 540 is configured to transmit the instructionto the mobile device. The transmitting may be performed in response toreceiving the identifier of the mobile device (or the identifier of theuser of the mobile device).

The analysis module 550 is configured to access data that describes(e.g., a descriptor of) an interaction by the user with the copy of themobile application stored on the mobile device with which the user isassociated. The interaction with the copy of the mobile device may be aninteraction by the user with a user interface displayed to the user onthe user's mobile device by the copy of the mobile application uponexecuting the instruction received from the communication module 540 ofthe experimentation machine 310. The analysis module 550 is furtherconfigured to analyze one or more descriptors of interactions by one ormore users with one or more copies of the mobile application and togenerate a metric that measure a characteristic of user responses to theexperiment based on the one or more descriptors of interactions.

The report module 560 is configured to access (e.g., receive) results ofan experiment and to generate a report based on the results of theexperiment. According to some example embodiments, the report module 560accesses the result of an analysis of the data that describesinteractions by one or more users with one or more copies of the mobileapplication executing an experiment generated by the experimentationmachine 310 and generates a report based on the result of the analysis.In some example embodiments, the report includes one or more metricsthat measure user responses to variations in user interfaces presentedto the users to determine which variation elicits a desired response bythe users.

In various example embodiments, the experiment that identifies theparameter is generated by the experimentation machine 310 to test userresponses to user interface configurations that include differentparameter values that correspond to the parameter. The experiment mayindicate a specific configuration of the user interface displayable tothe user of the mobile device upon the mobile application executing theinstruction transmitted, by the communication module 540, to the mobiledevice storing the mobile application. The experiment may test aresponse of a user of the mobile device to a particular displayconfiguration presented to the user as a result of the mobileapplication executing the instruction.

In some example embodiments, the mobile application stored on the mobiledevice is a first copy of the mobile application and the mobile deviceis a first mobile device associated with a first user. The communicationmodule 540 is further configured to transmit the instruction to a secondmobile device associated with a second user, based on a secondidentifier of the second mobile device. The analysis module 550 mayaccess a first descriptor of a first interaction by the first user withthe first copy of the mobile application upon the first copy of themobile application executing the instruction. The analysis module 550may also access a second descriptor of a second interaction by thesecond user with the second copy of the mobile application upon thesecond copy of the mobile application executing the instruction. Theanalysis module 550 may then generate a metric that measures acharacteristic of user responses to the experiment based on the firstdescriptor and the second descriptor.

In certain example embodiments, the instruction generated by theinstruction module 530 is a first instruction, the parameter value is afirst parameter value, and the mobile device is a first mobile devicethat is associated with a first user and stores a first copy of themobile application. The receiver module 510 is further configured toreceive an identifier of a second mobile device. The second mobiledevice may be associated with a second user and may store a second copyof the mobile application. The parameter module 520 is furtherconfigured to identify a second parameter value that corresponds to theparameter. The identifying of the parameter may be based on theidentifier of the second mobile device. The instruction module 530 isfurther configured to generate a second instruction executable by thesecond copy of the mobile application. The second instruction mayreference the second parameter value. The communication module 540 isfurther configured to transmit the second instruction to the secondmobile device in response to receiving the identifier of the secondmobile device.

FIGS. 6-8 are flowcharts illustrating a method of performing AB testingusing a mobile application, according to some example embodiments.Operations in the method 600 may be performed using modules describedabove with respect to FIG. 5 . As shown in FIG. 6 , the method 600 mayinclude one or more of operations 610, 620, 630, 640, and 650.

At method operation 610, the receiver module 510 receives an identifierof a mobile device that stores a mobile application. Examples of theidentifier of the mobile device are a Unique Device Identifier (UDID),an International Mobile Station Equipment Identity (IMEI), a serialnumber, a Media Access Control (MAC) address of a mobile deviceinterface, or an Integrated Circuit Card Identifier (ICCID). In someinstances, the identifier of the mobile device may be transmitted (e.g.,by the mobile device) to the experimentation machine 310 upon the userof the mobile application starting (e.g., launching, executing, running,etc.) the mobile application on the mobile device. The user may launchthe mobile application on the user's mobile device by selecting an iconrepresenting the mobile application in a user interface displayed to theuser on the mobile device.

At method operation 620, the parameter module 620 identifies a parameterof an element of a user interface displayed by the mobile application onthe mobile device. The parameter, the parameter value, or both may beidentified based on the identifier of the mobile device. In some exampleembodiments, the parameter module 620 first identifies an experiment forthe mobile application based on the identifier of the mobile device. Theexperiment, in some example embodiments, may be a description of one ormore rules (e.g., UI configuration rules) that is stored in a record ofa database (e.g., the database 126). The parameter module 620, based onthe identified experimentation, may then identify the parameter.

At method operation 630, the parameter module 620 selects a parametervalue that corresponds to the parameter. In some example embodiments,the experiment specifies the parameter and one or more parameter valuesthat correspond to the parameter. The parameter module 620 may selectthe parameter value based on the experiment.

At method operation 640, the instruction module 530, using at least oneprocessor, generates an instruction referencing the parameter value. Theinstruction is executable by the mobile application to configure adisplay of the user interface on the mobile device based on theparameter value.

At method operation 650, the communication module 540 transmits theinstruction to the mobile device. The communication module 540 maytransmit the instruction to the mobile device in response to thereceiver module 510 receiving the identifier of the mobile device.Further details with respect to the method operations of the method 600are described below with respect to FIGS. 7-8 .

As shown in FIG. 7 , the method 600 may include one or more of methodoperations 701 and 702, according to some example embodiments. Methodoperation 701 may be performed after the method operation 650, in whichthe communication module 540 transmits the instruction to the mobiledevice. At method operation 701, the analysis module 550 accesses (e.g.,receives) a descriptor of (e.g., data describing) an interaction by theuser with the user interface displayed by the mobile application on themobile device. The user may be associated with the mobile device.

Method operation 702 may be performed after the method operation 701. Atmethod operation 702, the analysis module 550 generates a metric thatmeasures a characteristic of the interaction by the user with the userinterface. Generating the metric that measures the characteristic of theinteraction by the user with the user interface may, in one example,include determining whether the user clicked on a particular element ofthe user interface. In another example, generating the metric includesdetermining whether the user signed up, via the mobile application userinterface, to receive one or more types of notifications (e.g., emails).The generating of the metric may be based on the descriptor of theinteraction. The interaction by the user with the user interface may bein response to the display of the element of the user interface by themobile application on the mobile device according to the parametervalue.

As shown in FIG. 8 , the method 600 may include one or more of methodoperations 801, 802, and 803, according to some example embodiments.Method operation 801 may be performed after the method operation 702, inwhich the analysis module 550 generates a metric that measures acharacteristic of the interaction by the user with the user interface.In some example embodiments, the descriptor of the interaction by theuser with the user interface displayed by the mobile application on themobile device is a first descriptor of a first interaction by a firstuser with the user interface displayed by a first copy of the mobileapplication on a first mobile device.

At method operation 801, the analysis module 550 accesses a seconddescriptor of a second interaction by a second user with the userinterface displayed by a second copy of the mobile application stored ona second mobile device. The second user may be associated with thesecond mobile device.

Method operation 802 may be performed after the method operation 801. Atmethod operation 802, the analysis module 550 generates a second metricthat measures a characteristic of the second interaction by the seconduser with the user interface. The generating of the second metric may bebased on the second descriptor of the interaction. The secondinteraction by the second user with the user interface may be inresponse to a second display of the element of the user interface by thesecond copy of the mobile application on the second mobile deviceaccording to the parameter value.

Method operation 803 may be performed after the method operation 802. Atmethod operation 803, the analysis module 550 generates an aggregatedmetric that measures a characteristic of user interactions with the userinterface based on aggregating the first metric and the second metric.

Example Mobile Device

FIG. 9 is a block diagram illustrating a mobile device 900, according toan example embodiment. The mobile device 900 may include a processor902. The processor 902 may be any of a variety of different types ofcommercially available processors 902 suitable for mobile devices 900(for example, an XScale architecture microprocessor, a microprocessorwithout interlocked pipeline stages (MIPS) architecture processor, oranother type of processor 902). A memory 904, such as a random accessmemory (RAM), a flash memory, or other type of memory, is typicallyaccessible to the processor 902. The memory 904 may be adapted to storean operating system (OS) 906, as well as application programs 908, suchas a mobile location enabled application that may provide LBSs to auser. The processor 902 may be coupled, either directly or viaappropriate intermediary hardware, to a display 910 and to one or moreinput/output (I/O) devices 912, such as a keypad, a touch panel sensor,a microphone, and the like. Similarly, in some embodiments, theprocessor 902 may be coupled to a transceiver 914 that interfaces withan antenna 916. The transceiver 914 may be configured to both transmitand receive cellular network signals, wireless data signals, or othertypes of signals via the antenna 916, depending on the nature of themobile device 900. Further, in some configurations, a GPS receiver 918may also make use of the antenna 916 to receive GPS signals.

Modules, Components and Logic

Certain embodiments are described herein as including logic or a numberof components, modules, or mechanisms. Modules may constitute eithersoftware modules (e.g., code embodied (1) on a non-transitorymachine-readable medium or (2) in a transmission signal) orhardware-implemented modules. A hardware-implemented module is atangible unit capable of performing certain operations and may beconfigured or arranged in a certain manner. In example embodiments, oneor more computer systems (e.g., a standalone, client or server computersystem) or one or more processors 902 may be configured by software(e.g., an application or application portion) as a hardware-implementedmodule that operates to perform certain operations as described herein.

In various embodiments, a hardware-implemented module may be implementedmechanically or electronically. For example, a hardware-implementedmodule may comprise dedicated circuitry or logic that is permanentlyconfigured (e.g., as a special-purpose processor, such as a fieldprogrammable gate array (FPGA) or an application-specific integratedcircuit (ASIC)) to perform certain operations. A hardware-implementedmodule may also comprise programmable logic or circuitry (e.g., asencompassed within a general-purpose processor 902 or other programmableprocessor 902) that is temporarily configured by software to performcertain operations. It will be appreciated that the decision toimplement a hardware-implemented module mechanically, in dedicated andpermanently configured circuitry, or in temporarily configured circuitry(e.g., configured by software) may be driven by cost and timeconsiderations.

Accordingly, the term “hardware-implemented module” should be understoodto encompass a tangible entity, be that an entity that is physicallyconstructed, permanently configured (e.g., hardwired) or temporarily ortransitorily configured (e.g., programmed) to operate in a certainmanner and/or to perform certain operations described herein.Considering embodiments in which hardware-implemented modules aretemporarily configured (e.g., programmed), each of thehardware-implemented modules need not be configured or instantiated atany one instance in time. For example, where the hardware-implementedmodules comprise a general-purpose processor 902 configured usingsoftware, the general-purpose processor 902 may be configured asrespective different hardware-implemented modules at different times.Software may accordingly configure a processor 902, for example, toconstitute a particular hardware-implemented module at one instance oftime and to constitute a different hardware-implemented module at adifferent instance of time.

Hardware-implemented modules can provide information to, and receiveinformation from, other hardware-implemented modules. Accordingly, thedescribed hardware-implemented modules may be regarded as beingcommunicatively coupled. Where multiple of such hardware-implementedmodules exist contemporaneously, communications may be achieved throughsignal transmission (e.g., over appropriate circuits and buses thatconnect the hardware-implemented modules). In embodiments in whichmultiple hardware-implemented modules are configured or instantiated atdifferent times, communications between such hardware-implementedmodules may be achieved, for example, through the storage and retrievalof information in memory structures to which the multiplehardware-implemented modules have access. For example, onehardware-implemented module may perform an operation, and store theoutput of that operation in a memory device to which it iscommunicatively coupled. A further hardware-implemented module may then,at a later time, access the memory device to retrieve and process thestored output. Hardware-implemented modules may also initiatecommunications with input or output devices, and can operate on aresource (e.g., a collection of information).

The various operations of example methods described herein may beperformed, at least partially, by one or more processors 902 that aretemporarily configured (e.g., by software) or permanently configured toperform the relevant operations. Whether temporarily or permanentlyconfigured, such processors 902 may constitute processor-implementedmodules that operate to perform one or more operations or functions. Themodules referred to herein may, in some example embodiments, compriseprocessor-implemented modules.

Similarly, the methods described herein may be at least partiallyprocessor-implemented. For example, at least some of the operations of amethod may be performed by one or more processors 902 orprocessor-implemented modules. The performance of certain of theoperations may be distributed among the one or more processors 902 orprocessor-implemented modules, not only residing within a singlemachine, but deployed across a number of machines. In some exampleembodiments, the one or more processors 902 or processor-implementedmodules may be located in a single location (e.g., within a homeenvironment, an office environment or as a server farm), while in otherembodiments the one or more processors 902 or processor-implementedmodules may be distributed across a number of locations.

The one or more processors 902 may also operate to support performanceof the relevant operations in a “cloud computing” environment or as a“software as a service” (SaaS). For example, at least some of theoperations may be performed by a group of computers (as examples ofmachines including processors), these operations being accessible via anetwork (e.g., the Internet) and via one or more appropriate interfaces(e.g., application program interfaces (APIs).)

Electronic Apparatus and System

Example embodiments may be implemented in digital electronic circuitry,or in computer hardware, firmware, software, or in combinations of them.Example embodiments may be implemented using a computer program product,e.g., a computer program tangibly embodied in an information carrier,e.g., in a machine-readable medium for execution by, or to control theoperation of, data processing apparatus, e.g., a programmable processor902, a computer, or multiple computers.

A computer program can be written in any form of programming language,including compiled or interpreted languages, and it can be deployed inany form, including as a stand-alone program or as a module, subroutine,or other unit suitable for use in a computing environment. A computerprogram can be deployed to be executed on one computer or on multiplecomputers at one site or distributed across multiple sites andinterconnected by a communication network.

In example embodiments, operations may be performed by one or moreprogrammable processors 902 executing a computer program to performfunctions by operating on input data and generating output. Methodoperations can also be performed by, and apparatus of exampleembodiments may be implemented as, special purpose logic circuitry,e.g., a field programmable gate array (FPGA) or an application-specificintegrated circuit (ASIC).

The computing system can include clients and servers. A client andserver are generally remote from each other and typically interactthrough a communication network. The relationship of client and serverarises by virtue of computer programs running on the respectivecomputers and having a client-server relationship to each other. Inembodiments deploying a programmable computing system, it will beappreciated that that both hardware and software architectures requireconsideration. Specifically, it will be appreciated that the choice ofwhether to implement certain functionality in permanently configuredhardware (e.g., an ASIC), in temporarily configured hardware (e.g., acombination of software and a programmable processor 902), or acombination of permanently and temporarily configured hardware may be adesign choice. Below are set out hardware (e.g., machine) and softwarearchitectures that may be deployed, in various example embodiments.

Example Machine Architecture and Machine-readable Medium

FIG. 10 is a block diagram illustrating components of a machine 1000,according to some example embodiments, able to read instructions 1024from a machine-readable medium 1022 (e.g., a non-transitorymachine-readable medium, a machine-readable storage medium, acomputer-readable storage medium, or any suitable combination thereof)and perform any one or more of the methodologies discussed herein, inwhole or in part. Specifically, FIG. 10 shows the machine 1000 in theexample form of a computer system (e.g., a computer) within which theinstructions 1024 (e.g., software, a program, an application, an applet,an app, or other executable code) for causing the machine 1000 toperform any one or more of the methodologies discussed herein may beexecuted, in whole or in part.

In alternative embodiments, the machine 1000 operates as a standalonedevice or may be connected (e.g., networked) to other machines. In anetworked deployment, the machine 1000 may operate in the capacity of aserver machine or a client machine in a server-client networkenvironment, or as a peer machine in a distributed (e.g., peer-to-peer)network environment. The machine 1000 may be a server computer, a clientcomputer, a personal computer (PC), a tablet computer, a laptopcomputer, a netbook, a cellular telephone, a smartphone, a set-top box(STB), a personal digital assistant (PDA), a web appliance, a networkrouter, a network switch, a network bridge, or any machine capable ofexecuting the instructions 1024, sequentially or otherwise, that specifyactions to be taken by that machine. Further, while only a singlemachine is illustrated, the term “machine” shall also be taken toinclude any collection of machines that individually or jointly executethe instructions 1024 to perform all or part of any one or more of themethodologies discussed herein.

The machine 1000 includes a processor 1002 (e.g., a central processingunit (CPU), a graphics processing unit (GPU), a digital signal processor(DSP), an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), aradio-frequency integrated circuit (RFIC), or any suitable combinationthereof), a main memory 1004, and a static memory 1006, which areconfigured to communicate with each other via a bus 1008. The processor1002 may contain microcircuits that are configurable, temporarily orpermanently, by some or all of the instructions 1024 such that theprocessor 1002 is configurable to perform any one or more of themethodologies described herein, in whole or in part. For example, a setof one or more microcircuits of the processor 1002 may be configurableto execute one or more modules (e.g., software modules) describedherein.

The machine 1000 may further include a graphics display 1010 (e.g., aplasma display panel (PDP), a light emitting diode (LED) display, aliquid crystal display (LCD), a projector, a cathode ray tube (CRT), orany other display capable of displaying graphics or video). The machine1000 may also include an alphanumeric input device 1012 (e.g., akeyboard or keypad), a cursor control device 1014 (e.g., a mouse, atouchpad, a trackball, a joystick, a motion sensor, an eye trackingdevice, or other pointing instrument), a storage unit 1016, an audiogeneration device 1010 (e.g., a sound card, an amplifier, a speaker, aheadphone jack, or any suitable combination thereof), and a networkinterface device 1020.

The storage unit 1016 includes the machine-readable medium 1022 (e.g., atangible and non-transitory machine-readable storage medium) on whichare stored the instructions 1024 embodying any one or more of themethodologies or functions described herein. The instructions 1024 mayalso reside, completely or at least partially, within the main memory1004, within the processor 1002 (e.g., within the processor's cachememory), or both, before or during execution thereof by the machine1000. Accordingly, the main memory 1004 and the processor 1002 may beconsidered machine-readable media (e.g., tangible and non-transitorymachine-readable media). The instructions 1024 may be transmitted orreceived over the network 1026 via the network interface device 1020.For example, the network interface device 1020 may communicate theinstructions 1024 using any one or more transfer protocols (e.g.,hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP)).

In some example embodiments, the machine 1000 may be a portablecomputing device, such as a smart phone or tablet computer, and have oneor more additional input components 1030 (e.g., sensors or gauges).Examples of such input components 1030 include an image input component(e.g., one or more cameras), an audio input component (e.g., amicrophone), a direction input component (e.g., a compass), a locationinput component (e.g., a global positioning system (GPS) receiver), anorientation component (e.g., a gyroscope), a motion detection component(e.g., one or more accelerometers), an altitude detection component(e.g., an altimeter), and a gas detection component (e.g., a gassensor). Inputs harvested by any one or more of these input componentsmay be accessible and available for use by any of the modules describedherein.

As used herein, the term “memory” refers to a machine-readable mediumable to store data temporarily or permanently and may be taken toinclude, but not be limited to, random-access memory (RAM), read-onlymemory (ROM), buffer memory, flash memory, and cache memory. While themachine-readable medium 1022 is shown in an example embodiment to be asingle medium, the term “machine-readable medium” should be taken toinclude a single medium or multiple media (e.g., a centralized ordistributed database, or associated caches and servers) able to storeinstructions. The term “machine-readable medium” shall also be taken toinclude any medium, or combination of multiple media, that is capable ofstoring the instructions 1024 for execution by the machine 1000, suchthat the instructions 1024, when executed by one or more processors ofthe machine 1000 (e.g., processor 1002), cause the machine 1000 toperform any one or more of the methodologies described herein, in wholeor in part. Accordingly, a “machine-readable medium” refers to a singlestorage apparatus or device, as well as cloud-based storage systems orstorage networks that include multiple storage apparatus or devices. Theterm “machine-readable medium” shall accordingly be taken to include,but not be limited to, one or more tangible (e.g., non-transitory) datarepositories in the form of a solid-state memory, an optical medium, amagnetic medium, or any suitable combination thereof.

Throughout this specification, plural instances may implementcomponents, operations, or structures described as a single instance.Although individual operations of one or more methods are illustratedand described as separate operations, one or more of the individualoperations may be performed concurrently, and nothing requires that theoperations be performed in the order illustrated. Structures andfunctionality presented as separate components in example configurationsmay be implemented as a combined structure or component. Similarly,structures and functionality presented as a single component may beimplemented as separate components. These and other variations,modifications, additions, and improvements fall within the scope of thesubject matter herein.

Certain embodiments are described herein as including logic or a numberof components, modules, or mechanisms. Modules may constitute softwaremodules (e.g., code stored or otherwise embodied on a machine-readablemedium or in a transmission medium), hardware modules, or any suitablecombination thereof. A “hardware module” is a tangible (e.g.,non-transitory) unit capable of performing certain operations and may beconfigured or arranged in a certain physical manner. In various exampleembodiments, one or more computer systems (e.g., a standalone computersystem, a client computer system, or a server computer system) or one ormore hardware modules of a computer system (e.g., a processor or a groupof processors) may be configured by software (e.g., an application orapplication portion) as a hardware module that operates to performcertain operations as described herein.

In some embodiments, a hardware module may be implemented mechanically,electronically, or any suitable combination thereof. For example, ahardware module may include dedicated circuitry or logic that ispermanently configured to perform certain operations. For example, ahardware module may be a special-purpose processor, such as a fieldprogrammable gate array (FPGA) or an ASIC. A hardware module may alsoinclude programmable logic or circuitry that is temporarily configuredby software to perform certain operations. For example, a hardwaremodule may include software encompassed within a general-purposeprocessor or other programmable processor. It will be appreciated thatthe decision to implement a hardware module mechanically, in dedicatedand permanently configured circuitry, or in temporarily configuredcircuitry (e.g., configured by software) may be driven by cost and timeconsiderations.

Accordingly, the phrase “hardware module” should be understood toencompass a tangible entity, and such a tangible entity may bephysically constructed, permanently configured (e.g., hardwired), ortemporarily configured (e.g., programmed) to operate in a certain manneror to perform certain operations described herein. As used herein,“hardware-implemented module” refers to a hardware module. Consideringembodiments in which hardware modules are temporarily configured (e.g.,programmed), each of the hardware modules need not be configured orinstantiated at any one instance in time. For example, where a hardwaremodule comprises a general-purpose processor configured by software tobecome a special-purpose processor, the general-purpose processor may beconfigured as respectively different special-purpose processors (e.g.,comprising different hardware modules) at different times. Software(e.g., a software module) may accordingly configure one or moreprocessors, for example, to constitute a particular hardware module atone instance of time and to constitute a different hardware module at adifferent instance of time.

Hardware modules can provide information to, and receive informationfrom, other hardware modules. Accordingly, the described hardwaremodules may be regarded as being communicatively coupled. Where multiplehardware modules exist contemporaneously, communications may be achievedthrough signal transmission (e.g., over appropriate circuits and buses)between or among two or more of the hardware modules. In embodiments inwhich multiple hardware modules are configured or instantiated atdifferent times, communications between such hardware modules may beachieved, for example, through the storage and retrieval of informationin memory structures to which the multiple hardware modules have access.For example, one hardware module may perform an operation and store theoutput of that operation in a memory device to which it iscommunicatively coupled. A further hardware module may then, at a latertime, access the memory device to retrieve and process the storedoutput. Hardware modules may also initiate communications with input oroutput devices, and can operate on a resource (e.g., a collection ofinformation).

The various operations of example methods described herein may beperformed, at least partially, by one or more processors that aretemporarily configured (e.g., by software) or permanently configured toperform the relevant operations. Whether temporarily or permanentlyconfigured, such processors may constitute processor-implemented modulesthat operate to perform one or more operations or functions describedherein. As used herein, “processor-implemented module” refers to ahardware module implemented using one or more processors.

Similarly, the methods described herein may be at least partiallyprocessor-implemented, a processor being an example of hardware. Forexample, at least some of the operations of a method may be performed byone or more processors or processor-implemented modules. As used herein,“processor-implemented module” refers to a hardware module in which thehardware includes one or more processors. Moreover, the one or moreprocessors may also operate to support performance of the relevantoperations in a “cloud computing” environment or as a “software as aservice” (SaaS). For example, at least some of the operations may beperformed by a group of computers (as examples of machines includingprocessors), with these operations being accessible via a network (e.g.,the Internet) and via one or more appropriate interfaces (e.g., anapplication program interface (API)).

The performance of certain operations may be distributed among the oneor more processors, not only residing within a single machine, butdeployed across a number of machines. In some example embodiments, theone or more processors or processor-implemented modules may be locatedin a single geographic location (e.g., within a home environment, anoffice environment, or a server farm). In other example embodiments, theone or more processors or processor-implemented modules may bedistributed across a number of geographic locations.

Some portions of the subject matter discussed herein may be presented interms of algorithms or symbolic representations of operations on datastored as bits or binary digital signals within a machine memory (e.g.,a computer memory). Such algorithms or symbolic representations areexamples of techniques used by those of ordinary skill in the dataprocessing arts to convey the substance of their work to others skilledin the art. As used herein, an “algorithm” is a self-consistent sequenceof operations or similar processing leading to a desired result. In thiscontext, algorithms and operations involve physical manipulation ofphysical quantities. Typically, but not necessarily, such quantities maytake the form of electrical, magnetic, or optical signals capable ofbeing stored, accessed, transferred, combined, compared, or otherwisemanipulated by a machine. It is convenient at times, principally forreasons of common usage, to refer to such signals using words such as“data,” “content,” “bits,” “values,” “elements,” “symbols,”“characters,” “terms,” “numbers,” “numerals,” or the like. These words,however, are merely convenient labels and are to be associated withappropriate physical quantities.

Unless specifically stated otherwise, discussions herein using wordssuch as “processing,” “computing,” “calculating,” “determining,”“presenting,” “displaying,” or the like may refer to actions orprocesses of a machine (e.g., a computer) that manipulates or transformsdata represented as physical (e.g., electronic, magnetic, or optical)quantities within one or more memories (e.g., volatile memory,non-volatile memory, or any suitable combination thereof), registers, orother machine components that receive, store, transmit, or displayinformation. Furthermore, unless specifically stated otherwise, theterms “a” or “an” are herein used, as is common in patent documents, toinclude one or more than one instance. Finally, as used herein, theconjunction “or” refers to a non-exclusive “or,” unless specificallystated otherwise.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method comprising: receiving an identifier of adevice that stores an application; identifying, based on the identifier,a layout description associated with an experiment that is configuredfor the device; causing display of an element that corresponds to thelayout description in a user interface of the device; tracking, via thedevice, one or more user interactions with the element; and generatingmetric data based on the tracking of the one or more user interactions.2. The method of claim 1, wherein the metric data comprises one or moreof a click-through rate, a number of purchases, and a serviceregistration record.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the metric datacomprises a measure of user response to the element displayed in theuser interface, further comprising: generating a report based on aresult of the experiment that includes the metric data; and causingdisplay of the report on the device.
 4. The method of claim 1, whereinthe layout description provides a configuration of one or more elementsof the user interface.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the identifierof the device comprises a user identifier and a mobile application copyidentifier.
 6. The method of claim 1, further comprising: causing theapplication to process the layout description, the applicationcorresponding to a copy that is not a latest copy of the application,the causing of the application to process the layout descriptionincluding causing display of the element that corresponds to the layoutdescription in the user interface of the device.
 7. The method of claim1, wherein the identifier of the device comprises one or more of a useridentifier and a mobile application copy identifier.
 8. The method ofclaim 1, further comprising: identifying a copy of the application basedon the identifier of the device; and determining a treatment associatedwith the experiment based on the copy of the application.
 9. The methodof claim 8, wherein the treatment associated with the experimentcomprises the layout description.
 10. The method of claim 8, wherein theapplication comprises logic of a plurality of treatments associated withthe experiment.
 11. A system comprising: one or more processors; and anon-transitory computer-readable storage medium comprising instructionsthat when executed by the one or more processors cause the one or moreprocessors to perform operations comprising: receiving an identifier ofa device that stores an application; identifying, based on theidentifier, a layout description associated with an experiment that isconfigured for the device; causing display of an element thatcorresponds to the layout description in a user interface of the device;tracking, via the device, one or more user interactions with theelement; and generating metric data based on the tracking of the one ormore user interactions.
 12. The system of claim 11, wherein the metricdata comprises one or more of a click-through rate, a number ofpurchases, and a service registration record.
 13. The system of claim11, wherein the metric data comprises a measure of user response to theelement displayed in the user interface, and wherein the operationsfurther comprise: generating a report based on a result of theexperiment that includes the metric data; and causing display of thereport on the device.
 14. The system of claim 11, wherein the layoutdescription provides a configuration of one or more elements of the userinterface.
 15. The system of claim 11, wherein the identifier of thedevice comprises a user identifier and a mobile application copyidentifier.
 16. The system of claim 11, wherein the operations furthercomprise: causing the application to process the layout description, theapplication corresponding to a copy that is not a latest copy of theapplication, the causing of the application to process the layoutdescription including causing display of the element that corresponds tothe layout description in the user interface of the device.
 17. Thesystem of claim 11, wherein the identifier of the device comprises oneor more of a user identifier and a mobile application copy identifier.18. The system of claim 11, wherein the operations further comprise:identifying a copy of the application based on the identifier of thedevice; and determining a treatment associated with the experiment basedon the copy of the application.
 19. The system of claim 18, wherein theapplication comprises logic of a plurality of treatments associated withthe experiment.
 20. A machine-readable non-transitory storage mediumhaving instruction data executable by a machine to cause the machine toperform operations comprising: receiving an identifier of a device thatstores an application; identifying, based on the identifier, a layoutdescription associated with an experiment that is configured for thedevice; causing display of an element that corresponds to the layoutdescription in a user interface of the device; tracking, via the device,one or more user interactions with the element; and generating metricdata based on the tracking of the one or more user interactions.